INTRODUCTION This exhibit is not about war. It is about the zealous account of African Americans standing up and being counted as defenders of LIBERTY. This LIBERTY encompasses a vision of basic human rights connected with justice as accorded to all other peoples seeking freedom both inside and outside the territorial bounds of America. American history, at its best, is filled with records of the early colonial settlers searching for a place where the principles of freedom could be expressed and practiced. We are all familiar with the many written proposals, oral discourses, and constitutional provisions which evolved from their democratic ideas. The vibrancy of their words were later put into resolutions which were incorporated into our U. S. Constitution. The early settlers of America spent arduous hours creating a national document which would hopefully spell out the basic ingredients necessary to sustain a unified democracy within this land. From the beginning, these pioneers wanted to establish a worthy place free of restrictions which would not subvert or obstruct the basic foundations of a viable democratic society. Educational, political, social, and religious freedoms were some of the known necessities for the real American way of life in this new country. But in the midst of building this democratic society, something strange happened. Out of a desperate need for laborers, the American economic system resolved to the use of indentured servants and slaves. Labor intensive jobs were soaring as the colonies grew into the Thirteen Original Colonies. Soon the freed indentured servants left only the slaves as permanent laborers. Slaves from the African continent made up the bulk of the labor intensive crew. That "Peculiar Institution" changed the course of democracy in America. By 1650, slavery was legally recognized in America and therefore excluded an extremely large population of humans from the processes of this democracy. From 1619-1863, the institution of slavery was sustained. This widespread existence of black slavery in America lasted throughout the duration of four major wars in this exhibit: The American Revolution (1775-1783) The War of 1812 (1812-1815) The Mexican American War (1846-1848) The American Civil War (1861-1865) These four wars, plus the six other wars in this exhibit, produced an unbelievable array of African American Soldiers of Liberty. The other wars included: The Indian Campaigns (1866-1890) The Spanish-American War (1898) World War I-European War (1914-1918) World War II-European War (1939-1945) The Korean War (1950-1953) The Vietnam War (1959-1973) The Persian Gulf War (1990-1991) African Americans served in all of the above wars fought by American forces for the continuance of FREEDOM and LIBERTY within these borders and abroad. A few of the names of the freedom fighters are well known, but countless others have never been recognized for their patriotism and help in establishing this country as a leader among world democracies. Today these brave victory soldiers can be freely recognized. Our bookstores, magazine publishers, and video distributors are helping to fill the gaps of previous omissions relating to this most important phase of American History. This exhibit will hopefully expand the knowledge about these sometime forgotten heroes who happen to be black.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION, 1775-1783 CRISPUS ATTUCKS (c. 1723-1770) On March 5, 1770, Crispus Attucks and a noisy group of Boston Patriots were jeering and "pestering" a contingency of British Redcoats who were sent from England to keep the American colonists in check. The patriots were a mixed group of disgruntled sailors, dock workers, servants, and apprentices. This group was tired of the steady appearance of the British soldiers amongst them. It is said that a group of seven British soldiers came across the Boston Commons facing the Customs House. Attucks took the lead and waved a group of colonists toward the armed soldiers. The British armed soldiers used their bayonets and pushed the congregating colonists aside and forbade them from assembling in groups. Ideas of Liberty were being amply discussed by most colonists. A tense moment came when Attucks and four other white patriots moved closer toward the British soldiers. "Let us drive out these ribalds. They have no business here." Attucks lunged forward with his "cordwood club" and beckoned the furious crowd to move in and disarm the British soldiers. Attucks was immediately struck twice in the chest by the British and killed. These shots were then followed by a series of others. Historical records listed four others killed: Samuel Gray, James Caldwell, Samuel Maverick, and Patrick Carr. For the colonists, this was an outrage, and it became known as the BOSTON MASSACRE. Crispus Attucks' race was secondary to his exemplary heroism and outspoken call for liberty for the American colonists. Attucks' martyrdom is said to have acted as a catalyst for the American colonists' eventual war for liberty and freedom from British rule. This war became the American Revolutionary War. Crispus Attucks and his compatriots were buried in a common grave in Boston. In 1888, the city of Boston erected a bronze and granite statue on the Boston Common to recognize Attucks as the "first to die for independence." Crispus Attucks was one of more than 5,000 Blacks, who fought for independence during the American Revolutionary War up until it ended with British General Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown on October 19, 1781. Other historical records recorded other black freedom fighters: Lemuel Haynes, Primas Black, and Epheram Black who fought as Minutemen at Lexington and Concord, April, 1775. Peter Salem, Salem Poor, and Jude Hall were soldiers at Bunker Hill, June, 1775. Prince Whipple and Oliver Cromwell served with General George Washington crossing the Delaware, just before the Battle of Trenton, December 25, 1779. Other U. S. units included the names: Charles Davis * Joshua Dunbar * Samuel Dunbar * Prince Easterbrooks * James Forten * Doss Freeman * Tobias Gilmore * Peter Galloway * Primas Hall * Job Hathaway * Ebenezer Hill * Thomas Hollen * Peter Jennings * Abrose Lewis * Titus Minor * Jerimiah Moho * Pomp Peters * Cato Prince * Esek Roberts * Caesar Sankee * Prince Vaughn * Sipeo Watson * Cuff Whitemore * Jesse Wood African Americans - free, slave, and ex-slave - fought side by side with white colonists seeking independence from British domination. GEORGE WASHINGTON, as Commander of the Continental Army, forbade the enlistment of Blacks - free, slave, or ex-slave - during the early stages of the war. He later learned that the Royal Governor of Virginia, John Murray, Earl of Dunmore, was enlisting slaves and indentured servants into the British army with the promise of "freedom to all slaves who would join the King's army." Dunmore's tactic of lifting the ban on Blacks enlisting in the British army led George Washington to change his mind, and, therefore, Blacks later joined the CONTINENTAL ARMED FORCES. There were African Americans who served as soldiers and marines. They were on privateers and warships. Today, military records have revealed the names of many early participants who struggled for the establishment of a free America. They were indeed a part of the "SPIRIT OF '76." Additional names included: William Appleby * William Balontino * Steven Bond * Charles Bowles * Scipio Brown * George Buley * Seymore Burr * Isaac Carr * Noel Carriere * Samuel Charlton * Caesar Clark * George Cooper * Richard Cozzens * Paul Cuffee * Austin Dabney * John Featherston * Cate Fisk * Jude Hall * Edward Hector * Francis Herd * Agrippa Hull * Jabez Jolly * Jeremy Jonah * Barzillai Lew * Luke Nickelson * Isaac Perkins * Christopher Poynos * Arly Randale * Joseph Ranger * Abram Read * Pomp Reeves * James Robinson * Joel Taburn * John Wheeler * Archelaus White * Cato Wood PHILLIS WHEATLEY Period: The American Revolution Phillis Wheatley was brought to America in 1761 and purchased as a house slave at the age of 8 years by John Wheatley, a wealthy Boston merchant. The beneficence of the Wheatley family helped Phillis Wheatley to cultivate her talents for writing classical poetry. Her poems covered topics on education, virtue, and Christianity. By 1775, she had completed and published a full book of poetry. Some early colonists used Miss Wheatley's talent as an example of what could be achieved by a slave, if given the chance to learn. Phillis Wheatley was granted her freedom in 1773 but lived only to the age of 31 years. Her book of poetry is considered to be one of the first books published by a Black in America.

THE WAR OF 1812, 1812-1815 The mood of America during this period centered around keeping its independence solid from British rule as established by the peace treaty of 1783. As a new country, America also wanted to expand its borders and show off its might against encroaching outside foreign expansionists. It was with this thrust that President Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) undertook the first step of expanding America's territorial bounds westward by annexing the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806) was also executed by Jefferson in order to explore the possibilities of expanding America's borders from ocean to ocean. When President James Madison (1809-1817) took office, America was again threatened by the British naval power. The British were "told to halt American merchant vessels anywhere on the high seas and search them for any British subjects serving in America's military or marine service." In 1806, the American frigate, the CHESAPEAKE, was captured by the British man-of-war, The LEOPARD. Among the captives were three black sailors aboard the CHESAPEAKE. These three Blacks were released in Nova Scotia five years later in 1811. The British's unforgiving stance kept them at bay with the new and independent states of America. They often seized U. S. ships trading with France, and The British continued to supply arms to the Native American Indians, who resented the westward expansion of the U. S. territories. By 1810, the U. S. ceased all trade with Britain. Within two years, the U. S. Congress declared war with Britain. The date was June 18, 1812. America was now engaged in the WAR OF 1812. The status of Blacks in early America was still in flux, and the established laws provided little protection. Even though slave importation was banned by 1808, some 250,000 more slaves were illegally imported into America from 1808-1860. Those Blacks who were willing, able, or chosen to fight the British for America's defense did so with unusual valor. They fought in various campaigns on both sea and land. Blacks served in naval vessels, in mixed regiments, and in all "colored" regiments. Many were taken as prisoners by the British. One exemplary unit was the TWENTY-SIXTH U. S. INFANTRY REGIMENT consisting of 247 "colored" recruits from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania under the command of Captain William Bezean. Many of these willing and able regiments were held at bay, but many provided the backup and labor to keep the army running effectively. Sketchy records show blacks at the BATTLES OF LAKE ERIE and NEW ORLEANS. This war ended with the signing of the Peace Treaty of Ghent, December 24, 1814. The fighting continued until August 6, 1815. Documented names of the African American soldiers during the WAR OF 1812 included among them: John Alfred * George Barnwell * John Brown * John Davis * Joshua Derwood * Jean Louis Dolliole * Simon Duke * John Eames * Cuff Farmer * Ezekieh Folden * Jacob Freeny * Quamenaugh Fuller * Abraham Gossard * John Johnson * Samuel Looks * Samuel Moore * Isaac Parcells * Vincent Populus * Joseph Savory * William Thatcher * John Bathan Vashon * Henry Willis * George Wilton THE SAILOR ON LEAVE Period: The War Of 1812 Through The Vietnam War African Americans as Navy men are among the oldest serving U.S. military groups. Although the official title of the NAVY was not designated, the early frigates and vessels used African Americans as seamen to work the decks as well as lots of other manual labor. By the WAR OF 1812, Blacks were invited to serve on both the BRITISH ships and also on the U. S. NAVY ships. The CIVIL WAR enlisted large numbers of African Americans on the ironclad ships and gunboats. Later wars had racial policies which kept the number of African Americans low by assigning them to lesser classifications such as messmen and stewards. During World War II, Naval enlistment again moved higher with the establishment of all Black crews on the USS MASON and the SUBCHASER PC1254. Although the Navy lifted "RACIAL RESTRICTIONS" by 1946, it was not until the KOREAN WAR (1950-1953) that the NAVY welcomed AFRICAN AMERICANS fully. With NAVAL ORDER Z 66, more opportunities for African Americans' advancement to positions as officers were opened. By 1987, 18.5% of the U. S. NAVY was African American.

THE MEXICAN AMERICAN WAR, 1846-1848 Politics played a big part in this short-lived, but significant historical American war. President James K. Polk (1845-1849) took up the issue of the annexation of the Independent Republic of TEXAS (1836) as a new state within the United States. This was accomplished by March 2, 1845, but the Mexican Government was dissatisfied with the settlement of the boundary which included the land around the Nueces River and the Rio Grande on the Mexican side. It is said that Polk wanted to settle the issue with Mexico by peaceable means, but he was also desirous of fulfilling America's MANIFEST DESTINY. Polk wanted to acquire that land which stretched across the Southwest to the Pacific Ocean. Slavery was also an issue, for Texas was admitted to the UNION as a SLAVE STATE. Antislavery groups accused POLK, who was a southern slaveholder, of advancing the benefits of American slaveholders. Therefore, the political aims created divided opinions and much debate about the ambitious expansionist endeavors on the part of President James K. Polk. By April 24, 1846, border clashes had escalated, and, on May 13, 1846, the U. S. declared war with Mexico. Buena Vista, Veracruz, Cerro Gordo, and Mexico City had several campaigns. Mexico was opposed to a cession of territory but finally agreed to the American-Mexican Treaty of GUADALUPE-HIDALGO on February 2, 1848. Out of this treaty came the territory which later became the states of NEW MEXICO, COLORADO, UTAH, NEVADA, ARIZONA, and CALIFORNIA. In order to secure a fighting force for the Mexican American War, Congress authorized an enlistment of 50,000 volunteers. Blacks did indeed volunteer to serve in this war. Opposition to Blacks serving America's call of duty caused it to be not always acceptable and at many times questionable and conditional. Black soldiers in the Mexican American War comprised a list of freedmen who felt they were mainly showing loyalty to their country by fighting for LIBERTY. Military records have produced names for many of the soldiers. The First Regiment of Volunteers, New York; the Fourth Artillery; and the Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, and Thirteenth Infantry regiments provided many names. Besides the infantry, ample names were connected with the U. S. Navy, and many were company musicians. Among those who served were: John Bechtel * David Black * James Bose * John Conter * Charles Debeque * Alexander C. Elliot * Joseph Garrison * Moses Johnson * Greenberry Logan * Samuel McCullough * Charles McGee * Conday Monison * Jordan B. Noble * John Rouse * Robert Spoltswood * Henry C. Sprague * Joe Travis * Carel Wentzel SOJOURNER TRUTH Period: The Mexican American War Through The Indian Campaigns Sojourner Truth's real name was ISABELLA BAUMFREE. She was a preacher, lecturer, and abolitionist. The New York State Emancipation Act of 1827 granted Sojourner Truth the right of freedom from slavery. She bore thirteen children, and, even though illiterate, she became a masterful orator. Her accounts of slavery, freedom, and women's rights won the causes and hearts of both white and black abolitionists. She traveled across the country, preaching on "a mission of truth." Huge crowds always gathered to hear her powerful oratory speeches. James and Lucretia Mott and Harriet Beecher Stowe were supporters and friends of Sojourner Truth.

THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865 The conflict between the states of the developing United States reached an impasse concerning states' rights issues, which eventually ended in a divided America in 1861. Seven of the southern states decided to break away from the UNION on February 8, 1861. Jefferson Davis was named President of these new CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA. Many say SLAVERY was the causative factor behind the dissolution of the UNION which led to the AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. President Abraham Lincoln stated, "A house divided against itself cannot stand." In 1858, Lincoln stated that, "I believe this government cannot endure, permanently, half slave and half free." It was therefore inevitable that something had to be done in America in order to preserve the UNION. The disunity of the states escalated into one of America's most dreadful and bloody wars. It all began when the CONFEDERATES fired on FORT SUMTER, the Federal military base in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. From the beginning, both black slaves and freeman saw this opportunity to serve in the military as a method for relinquishing their chains and proving their inclusive worthiness to this nation. Some black slaves, for some unknown reasons, remained with their masters and assisted them on the side of the Confederacy during the entire period of the Civil War. On the whole, there was widespread resistance by whites on both the Union blue and Confederate gray sides in accepting Blacks as part of the military. The Union Secretary of War issued a statement: "This Department has no intention at the present to call into service of the government any colored soldiers." The need for able-bodied fighting men soon led individual states to swear into the military separate REGIMENTS OF ALL BLACK TROOPS. Other Blacks found acceptance as volunteers in semimilitary or military support positions. Not until August of 1862 did Blacks receive the endorsement of Congress to serve in the Civil War. "Congress revoked the militia laws banning Blacks" from serving in the Union Army. Soon afterward, Abraham Lincoln issued on January 1, 1863, THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION, "freeing all slaves in areas still in rebellion." The Emancipation Proclamation opened the door full-fledged for Blacks to participate in the Civil War. On May 1, 1863, the War Department created the BUREAU OF COLORED TROOPS in order to handle the recruitment and organization of all black regiments. These units were known as the UNITED STATES COLORED TROOPS, and all units were commanded by white officers. The widespread knowledge about these all black units of the Civil War came about recently with the popularity of the movie, GLORY, starring Denzel Washington. Based upon the triumphs and defeats of the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, a historical moment was captured in the lives of some unknown American Freedom Fighters. Twenty-four black soldiers were awarded the meritorious CONGRESSIONAL MEDALS OF HONOR, and over 200,000 African Americans served in the U. S. armed forces during the Civil War. 620,000 Americans died in this war. Over 38,000 Blacks died. Among the countless soldiers were: Ruff Abernathy * Jeremiah Alpheus * Aaron Anderson * Joe Anderson * Alexander T. Augusta * Jasper Banks * William H. Barnes * Powhatan Beaty * William Bell * Charles Bentley * Willian Bibb * Nicholas Biddle * Robert Blake * John R. Bowels * Richard Henry Boyd * William Bronson * James Bright * William Brooks * Goodman Brown * Jefferson Brown * George W. Burrows * Frank Cage * Andre Cailloux * William H. Carney * George Garnish * James Henry Conyers * Willian Dabney * Benjamin Davis * Tobias Dawson * Martin R. Delaney * Thomas S. Dixon * William Dupree * Robert B. Elliott * Christian A. Fleetwood * R. B. Forten * William Jackson * Charles L. Mitchell * Miles Moore * Thomas S. M. Pierson * P. B. S. Pinchback * Demps Whipper Powell * Jeremiah Sills * Stephen A. Swails * Harvey A. Thompson * James Monroe Trotter * Wade Watkins * Nim Wilkes * Bill Yopp CIVIL WAR SOLDIERS Being able to fight in a DIVIDED AMERICA presented a complex set of rules for American Blacks. Some were FREE, some were SLAVES seeking freedom, and some were fighters with LOYALTY to a way of life UNDER CONFEDERATE RULE. Equality was hard to achieve for the African American during this ERA in history. The war was a bloody one, and it cost the lives of over 38,000 Blacks seeking to be a part of the FREEDOM ON AMERICAN SOIL. THE ASSAULT ON FORT WAGNER The battle shown here was one of the toughest and most famous of the Civil War period. The pictured hill is just in front of FORT WAGNER, a confederate bastion on a small island facing the CHARLESTON HARBOR. The huge sand mound led up to the FORT, which prevented outsiders from entering the city of CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA. To the right is the ALL BLACK 54TH INFANTRY under the command of Colonel ROBERT GOULD SHAW. Shown also, in the foreground by the flag, is WILLIAM H. CARNEY, the first African American to earn the MEDAL OF HONOR for his exemplary bravery and service to his country during the Civil War. Ironclad ships in the harbor, flanked regimented troops, and man-to-man combat as they advanced the Hill was the order for battle. The movie GLORY is a good depiction of what happened at FORT WAGNER, JULY 18, 1863. FREDERICK DOUGLASS Period: The American Civil War And The Indian Campaigns Frederick Douglass was one of America's most respected and well-known African American orators and abolitionists. His untiring energy and experience as a former slave from Maryland equipped him with the knowledge and fortitude to seek freedom for others. Frederick Douglass became a world renowned traveler. He preached about the enslavement of African Americans, but he also demanded world justice. Irish Americans were also addressed as mistreated peoples by Douglass. Frederick Douglass' life, as captured in his NARRATIVE OF THE LIFE OF FREDERICK DOUGLASS, AN AMERICAN SLAVE (1845), is profound reading for everyone. During the American Civil War, Douglass was a forceful leader and "urged Lincoln to free the slaves and arm all Negro men." Douglass' own two sons were among the first to serve the Union forces in the Civil War. Douglass also published his newspaper, THE NORTH STAR (1847), and later THE DOUGLASS MONTHLY (1859-1863). Douglass also helped to establish the 54th Massachusetts Regiment of the Union Army. HARRIET TUBMAN Period: The American Civil War Through The Spanish-American War Among other captive American slaves, HARRIET TUBMAN was known as an "Angel of Mercy." She was also born into slavery in Dorchester County, Maryland around 1821. Before she died in 1913, her early untiring work was well-known among the slaves, abolitionists, and slave catchers. She escaped bondage in 1849 and dedicated her life to freeing other American slaves. Harriet Tubman became the most famous of the "CONDUCTORS of the UNDERGROUND RAILROAD." At the risk of being captured and hung, she made 19 trips to the SOUTH and helped over 300 runaway slaves to freedom up NORTH. She was known to be quick, shrewd, and clever. It is said that she never lost a "passenger" on the freedom trail. Southern slave owners wanted to capture Ms. Tubman so badly, they offered a huge REWARD of over $40,000 (around $600,000 in today's money). During the Civil War, Harriet Tubman worked as a spy for the UNION ARMY. Ms. Tubman's home in AUBURN, New York was designated a NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARK by the U.S. Department of the INTERIOR on May 30, 1974.

THE INDIAN CAMPAIGNS, 1866-1890 The Civil War had officially ended in 1865. At the end of this year, on December 18, 1865, the 13th Amendment took effect, and therefore SLAVERY was abolished in all the states of the United States. The following year of 1866 brought in a new feeling of freedom and liberation for BLACK Americans. This year also ushered in a new resistance to the advancement of Blacks in America. 1866 was the first year the KU KLUX KLAN opened its membership in the southern states of America and preached its racist views of domination and supremacy. While Black Americans were trying to deal with the RECONSTRUCTION ERA of the SOUTH (1866-1877), the U. S. Government was fulfilling its MANIFEST DESTINY. The Native Americans had been angered for years by the settlers moving in on their homeland and sacred hunting grounds. By 1866, Indian raids on the frontier had become fierce and widespread. The regions most vulnerable to Indian attacks were in the western and southwestern regions of the United States. The U. S. Government recruited both soldiers and scouts to protect the westward moving settlers. The railroad surveyors, mail routes, and stage coach routes between the states of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, Utah, California, and the Dakotas were also in need of protection from Indian raids and sometimes western outlaws. Today, significant records have surfaced showing Black soldiers and scouts playing valuable roles in the peacekeeping protective forces of the early WEST. One renowned Black group, called the BUFFALO SOLDIERS, supplied a protective force for the expanding WEST. They composed the 9th, 10th, 24th, and 25th CAVALRIES. The 9th and 10th Cavalries were former all black regiments in the Civil War. The other two units were organized to increase the protective needs of the westward moving pioneers of Western America. These BUFFALO SOLDIERS were so named by the Native American Indians because of their intense and unrelentless "reputation for courage." The all black units were present in the campaigns against such tribal nations as the Apaches, Cheyennes, Comanches, Sioux, and Kiowas. They acted as a peacemaking force and helped to circumvent many other brewing wars with the Native American Indians. These soldiers also worked the plains and kept white settlers called "BOOMERS" off UNASSIGNED LANDS in the western frontier. In addition, the Buffalo Soldiers acted as police on the western plains. The U. S. Government often ordered them to seek out outlaws such as BILLY THE KID. Besides their tour of duty in the INDIAN CAMPAIGNS, the Buffalo Soldiers also later served in CUBA during the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR of 1898. On July 25, GENERAL COLIN POWELL, former Chairman of the U. S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, dedicated a bronze twelve-foot statue at FORT LEAVENWORTH, Kansas - the historic birthplace of the 10th Cavalry - of one of the original Western horseback-riding Buffalo Soldiers of the Western frontier. Among those who served were: John Hanks Alexander * Henry E. Baker * Thomas Boyne * Benjamin Brown * John Denny * Pompey Factor * Henry Ossian Flipper * Clinton Greaves * Henry Johnson * George Jordan * William McBryar * Isaiah Mays * Joseph E. Noil * Isaac Payne * John H. Paynter * William H. Penn * Thomas Shaw * John Webster Smith * Howard Snoden * Emanuel Staance * Jacob W. Steven * Charles Burrill Turner * Augustus Walley * John Ward * Johnson S. Whittaker * Moses Williams * William O. Wilson * Brent Woods AUGUSTUS WALLEY Period: The Indian Campaigns Augustus Walley was a member of the famed BUFFALO SOLDIERS. He was part of the 9TH CAVALRY REGIMENT. Walley was awarded the MEDAL OF HONOR on October 1, 1890 for his bravery in rescuing a wounded trooper who was besieged by heavy gunfire from the APACHE tribe on the GREAT WESTERN PLAINS. IDA B. WELLS Period: The Indian Campaigns Through World War I Ida B. Wells was an educator, civil rights leader, and a journalist. Mistreated for not giving up her seat on a railroad car for "whites only," Ida Wells turned from teaching to journalism. While in MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE, she wrote and exposed in her weekly publication, THE FREE SPEECH, the names of the persons responsible for the LYNCHING of three African Americans. Her press was destroyed by an angry mob, but she fled to NEW YORK CITY and kept up the exposure of the LYNCHING of Blacks as a topic for JUSTICE and FAIR LAWS. SOUTHERN HORRORS (1892) and A RED RECORD were two of her publications on the subject of lynching. On May 30, 1974, her Memphis home was designated a National Historic Landmark.

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898 Recognition, Honor, and Leadership were some of the prime reasons for Black Americans wanting to serve in the U. S. Military. The Civil War hero, Sergeant William Carney of the "54TH COLORED INFANTRY" was the first African American to receive the U. S. Military's highest decoration - the Medal of Honor. His recognition and popularity as a U. S. Military Man led other Black Americans to model after him and seek this type of national embrace and acceptance. When the Spanish-controlled island of CUBA was seeking its independence from SPAIN in 1898, the experienced all black military units were ready to serve. It took the explosion of the American battleship, the U. S. S. MAINE, killing 260 Americans (22 Black sailors perished with this crew) on February 15, 1898 in Havana Harbor to create a means for declaring war. American preparation was quick, and on April 22, 1898, the U. S. Navy blockaded SANTIAGO HARBOR and, on April 24, declared war on Spain. Congress also activated TEN REGIMENTS OF ALL BLACK TROOPS: the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 3rd Alabama, 3rd North Carolina, 23rd, 24th, and 25th. ONLY the 9th, 10th, 24th, and 25th saw combat in this short-lived war. Several key battles included LAS GUAIMAS, EL CANEY, the Battles of SAN JUAN HILL, SANTIAGO, and KETTLE HILL. The SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR established several key points: The Black-American units were able to use more trained black officers as commanders of their regiments. They were able to serve the armed forces on territory outside the United States. Their superior acumen and bravery was recognized by two prominent Americans: Theodore Roosevelt, who later became U. S. President (1901-1909), served along side black soldiers in the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR as part of the unit, "THE ROUGH RIDERS." On one Cuban mission, the 10th Calvary rescued the Rough Riders. Theodore Roosevelt said, "I don't think that any Rough Rider will ever forget the tie that binds us to the 9th and 10th Calvary." Lieutenant John J. Pershing was able to comment, "White regiments, Black regiments, Regulars, and Rough Riders, representing the young manhood of the North and South, fought shoulder to shoulder. All of the soldiers were mindful only of their common duty as Americans." On July 3, 1898, The U. S. Navy destroyed the Spanish Naval Fleet. This major battle ended Spanish rule on the Atlantic Seaboard. In the end, the U. S. freed Cuba, and Spain ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. The U. S. also annexed the republic of Hawaii in 1898. Among those soldiers were: George G. Anderson * William H. Anderson * Daniel Atkins * Edward L. Baker Jr. * Dennis Bell * George Berry * Horace W. Bivins * Lewis Broadus * Horace G. Burke * T. C. Butler * Pierre L. Carmouche * Jordan Chavis * Hilary W. Coston * James Elmer Dellinger * Franklin A. Denison * Lee Fritz * George W. Ford * William H. Franklin * James Gilliard * Captain Wilt Jackson * John A. Logan * John Roy Lynch * Lt. John S. Nelson * Robert Penn * Walter Pinchback * George W. Prioleau * William W. Purnell * Lt. Charles L. Reece * Lt. John W. Shreeves * Lt. Jacob C. Smith * Sgt. William Tompkins * William A. Vrooman * William C. Warmsley * Major William Wesley * Cpt. Horace Wheaton * Col. Charles A. Young BOOKER T. WASHINGTON Period: The Indian Campaigns And The Spanish-American War Booker Taliaferro Washington was born a slave in Hale's Ford, Virginia in the year 1856. His education took him to the Hampton Institute in Virginia where he graduated in 1876. By 1881, he established the now famed TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE in Alabama. Booker Washington realized the mood of America and the Southern social system. He therefore took, according to his knowledge, "a conciliatory policy with respect to civil rights." Self-help, economics, and moral advancement would be his advocacy for African Americans, NOT social integration. At Tuskegee, he built a strong institution with white Southern American support. Tuskegee became the paragon of education for African Americans. Vocational education, frugality, self-reliance, and learning an employable trade for the world of work was the Tuskegee model. Much-needed monies were given to Washington for his funding of progressive educational skills for building an economic and employable base in the African American community. From 1895 until his death in 1915, most funding for African American education passed via the approval of Booker T. Washington.

WORLD WAR I, 1914-1918 When World War I erupted, the Black soldier had learned to see his opportunity in the military as a means of expressing his patriotism and bravery for the country in which he so totally sought inclusion. Racism on the home front was not "dead," but the Black soldier wanted to establish his reputation as a defender of freedom and liberty. Nationalistic policies, military alliances, and a world view of conquest were some reasons for the outbreak of this national war between multiple countries. The two superpowers were the CENTRAL POWERS: AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, GERMANY, and the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (now Turkey), and the ALLIES: BELGIUM, FRANCE, GREAT BRITAIN, RUSSIA, SERBIA, and, by April 6, 1917, the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The United States wanted to stay out of this war, but the threat and conquests of the German seapower had already sunk several U. S. merchant ships, including the killing of 128 Americans on the LUSITANIA vessels on May 23, 1915. Mobilizing troops and building defense equipment required the spirit and help of a unified American effort. The SELECTIVE SERVICE ACT was adopted and therefore required all men between 21 and 30 to register for the draft. LIBERTY BONDS and UNCLE SAM appeared everywhere - "I WANT YOU." As in previous American wars, volunteerism for the U. S. Military was widespread, but Blacks were still being reluctantly accepted into the larger body of the United States Armed Forces. Mobilized community pressure did help in the formation of two major all black units - the 92nd and the 93rd. The 92nd was formed entirely of black draftees. Most of the 92nd were kept out of combat and assigned only to labor battalions. The 92nd remained a second unit of the AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES. These black soldiers were not integrated into other all white units. In this moment in time, they were treated as segregated military units of America. With the escalation of World War I, the 93rd division was sent to France and fought side by side with the French troops wearing the U. S. uniform. They were later joined by the all black 369th Infantry. These black soldiers fought in combat at the battles of Argonne, Chateau Thierry, St. Mihiel, Champagne, Vosges, and Metz. Over 367,000 of them represented the United States in World War I. Only 10% of this number was assigned to combat during the war. The French were so indebted to these troops, they awarded the CROIX DE GUERRE for "gallantry in action" to 171 men from these all black units. Despite discriminatory practices and segregated units, Black Americans proved their valor, and 1,300 were eventually commissioned and promoted to the ranks of officers in the United States Military for their duty in World War I. Six major units served in this war: the 92nd, 93rd, 369th, 370th, 371st, 372nd. Some of the Servicemen included: Robert C. Allen * Urbane F. Bass * Robert S. Campbell * William H. Brooks * Arthur Leo Curtis * Otis B. Duncan * James Reese Europe * Henry Johnson * Thomas Edward Jones * Max C. King * Kenneth Lewis * Clifton Merimon * Iverson O. Mitchell * John H. Patton * Adam Patterson * Ira Payne * William Payne * Beverly Perea * Samuel A. Reid * Needham Roberts * Howard D. Queen * Noble Sissle * Freddie Stowers * Clarence R. Van Alen * James E. Walker * Joseph A. Ward * Bert Williams * James M. Whittico * William H. York WORLD WAR I SOLDIER African Americans volunteered to be combat soldiers in this first of the major wars fought on foreign shores. Although only 10% of the 400,000 enlisted African Americans saw combat, their willingness to serve was overwhelming. Discriminatory military practices were still prevalent, but, when allowed to fight, they did so with honor. Many African Americans fought with the FRENCH FORCES, and, by the end of the war, the word had gotten back to the American War Department praising these Black Americans for their bravery and honor in helping the FRENCH win their battles against the CENTRAL POWERS of GERMANY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, and their allies. GEORGE WASHINGTON CARVER Period: Spanish-American War Through World War II George Washington Carver was one of America's greatest scientists and botanists. George W. Carver gave his life to farming research. He amazed men in high places with his contributions to mankind dealing with conservation and the creative usage of farm products. George W. Carver was born into slavery but was eventually freed and worked his way through high school. He later graduated from IOWA STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE with a B.S. (1894) and an M.S. (1896). His noted prestige came about from his creation of over 350 products from the peanut, sweet potato, and pecan. Most of his life's research was done as a teacher at the famed TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE in Alabama. Carver is also credited with saving the AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY OF THE SOUTH. He recommended CROP ROTATION to farmers in order to enrich the soil with balanced minerals for future planting. An abundance of honors have been bestowed upon George Washington Carver for his contributions to humanity. TUSKEGEE, ALABAMA is now the home of the CARVER MUSEUM and the CARVER FOUNDATION FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.

WORLD WAR II, 1939-1945 By the time World War II commenced, the United States Military Organization had developed into a big Military Complex. The military offered positions for laborers, infantrymen, aircraft pilots, navy men, nurses, doctors, engineers, tankers, and combat officers, to name a few. Previous wars had tempered the American government to focus on bigger and more efficient military security forces. The military was also more divisionalized into larger separate branches of service with specific performance guidelines for each service division. The ARMY, the NAVY, the ARMY AIR FORCE (AAF), and the MARINES were the major groupings. The first PEACETIME U. S. DRAFT was approved on September 14, 1940, but Adolph Hitler had already taken an aggressive step to take over the country of POLAND on September 1, 1939. WORLD WAR II had thus started. Although over 2.5 million Black Americans registered for military service in World War II, only about 1 million served as draftees or volunteers. THE ARMY The ARMY took in most of the black military personnel. It was estimated that three fourths of the Blacks served in the ARMY. It is worth noting here that freedom to serve the country did not mean freedom to participate fully. Black soldiers were still in SEGREGATED UNITS within the ARMY. Most black soldiers acted as combat support groups or as labor battalions. The all black 92ND DIVISION and the 761ST TANK BATTALION were among the few exceptional Divisions to participate in full combat during World War II. Over 12,000 decorations and citations were awarded to the 92nd Division, and the 761st received the Presidential Unit Citation "for extraordinary heroism in military operations against an armed enemy." THE NAVY The NAVY became more restricted in its assignments to Blacks during World War II. Most black Navy men were limited to tours of duty on shore or around small coastal harbors. By 1943, two segregated units, the USS MASON and the Submarine Chaser, the PC 1264, were granted full sailing duties. Over 150,000 Blacks served in the NAVY during World War II. The first black Naval Officer was assigned to an all black crew on the Submarine Chaser in 1943. THE ARMY AIR FORCE (AAF) In the 1940's, it was still believed that Blacks were incapable of flying aircraft. This myth was dispelled with the help of the U. S. Congress. On June 27, 1939 - THE CIVILIAN PILOT TRAINING ACT was passed. This solidary ACT helped to create a reserve of civilian pilots to be called in case of War. Young black pilots were given the opportunity to train with U. S. approved programs located at TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE, HOWARD UNIVERSITY, HAMPTON INSTITUTE, NORTH CAROLINA AandT, DELAWARE STATE, WEST VIRGINIA STATE, LINCOLN UNIVERSITY of Missouri, and HARLEM AIRPORT in Chicago. The SELECTIVE SERVICE ACT OF 1940 also increased the opportunity for a broader participation of Blacks in the military when it banned discrimination in the selection and training of all American citizens because of race and color. The success of the CIVILIAN PILOT TRAINING ACT helped put the 99TH PURSUIT SQUADRON OF TUSKEGEE on the map. It was said that "the success of Negro youth in the Army Air Force would be predicated upon the success of the 'Tuskegee Experiment.'" HBO's docudrama, THE TUSKEGEE AIRMEN, is a good depiction of this era of Black Americans seeking acceptance as military pilots. Because of the opportunity provided by the Civilian Pilot Training Act, the number of Blacks in the ARMY AIR FORCE jumped from 2,250 in 1941 to over 145,000 by 1944. The two major groups to see combat as AAF men were the 99TH PURSUIT SQUADRON and the 332ND FIGHTER GROUP. Out of the 332nd Group came the 100th, 301st, and 302nd Squadrons under the command of Lieutenant Colonel BENJAMIN O. DAVIS, SR., who became America's FIRST AFRICAN AMERICAN GENERAL on October 25, 1940. By 1944, the 99th was added to the 332nd and participated in campaigns in Sicily, Rome, and Romania. The 99th and 332nd earned many DISTINGUISHED UNIT CITATIONS. THE MARINE CORPS African Americans entered the MARINE CORP three years after World War II started. The MARINE CORP ended its 167 year ban on including Blacks and finally enlisted its first black Marines in 1942. Records showed that about 17,000 African American Marines served in World War II but were mostly assigned to service units such as depot and ammunition companies. African American women also joined the military during World War II. They served in the WOMEN'S ARMY CORP and the WAVES, a women's division of the NAVY. Among those who served: Vernon J. Baker * William Baldwin * Elvin Bell * Midan Bousefield * James R. Brown * Edward A. Carter, Jr. * Kenneth W. Coleman * Lyncurgus Connor * Joseph Cross * Charles W. David * Benjamin O. Davis, Sr * George A. Davison * Alonzo Douglas * Joseph Elsberry * Charles S. Finch * Katherine Horton * Royall B. Fleming * Trueheart Fogg * Wade Foggie * Charles F. Gandy, Jr. * Alex P. Haley * Charles Hall * West A. Hamilton * Leonard Roy Harmon * Eldern Holly * Jack D. Holsclaw * Edward S. Hope * Ruth C. Isaacs * June Jefferson, Jr. * Ernest A. Jenkins * Philip T. Johnson * Ervin Lattimore * Ulysses Lee * Clarence D. Lester * John M. Madison * Woodall I. Marsh * Dorie Miller * Walter Morris * Hugh N. Mulzac * Hansen Outley * Inez Patterson * Howard D. Perry * Wendell O. Pruitt * Ruben Rivers * Bernard W. Robinson * Clarence Samuels * Edward Taylor * Arthur L. Thompson * Rothschild Webb * Edgar E. Zeno THE TUSKEGEE AIRMEN Period: World War II Racial exclusionary policies were in full force in certain areas of the military during the late 1930's and early 1940's. General H. H. Arnold had made it clear that "no Blacks would ever pilot a plane in the upcoming war." The United States was mobilizing for a possible war against the united front of the AXIS POWERS: GERMANY, ITALY, and JAPAN. The legal segregation of African Americans did not allow them to receive the necessary training to become FIGHTER AIR PILOTS at white-operated pilot schools. After some protest, the WAR DEPARTMENT, in 1941, agreed to accommodate an all-black FLIGHT SCHOOL at TUSKEGEE AIR FORCE BASE. That base produced the first African American COMBAT FIGHTER PILOTS, and they became known as the TUSKEGEE AIRMEN of the 99TH PURSUIT SQUADRON. Out of this squadron came Colonel Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., son of the first African American General, Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. Colonel Davis was awarded the SILVER STAR for gallantry in COMBAT. He was later promoted to general in 1965. CARTER G. WOODSON, PH.D. Period: The Indian Campaigns Through World War II This remarkable scholar achieved the unbelievable. Carter G. Woodson (1875-1950) was born of slave parents and therefore was unable to attend school until age 20. By 1903, he had received a Litt.B. from Berea College in Kentucky. Later, in 1907, he received a B.A. degree and then, in 1908, an M.A. degree from the University of Chicago. He studied in Europe and Asia and took a semester of study at the Sorbonne in Paris, France. In 1912, he received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in Boston. Dr. Woodson became the driving force behind the ASSOCIATION FOR THE STUDY OF NEGRO LIFE AND HISTORY which he founded in 1915. He was the first editor and publisher of the JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY. After several deanships at major universities, Dr. Woodson directed all of his energies to publishing books and articles on subjects which were not recognized by major outside publishers. Dr. Carter G. Woodson is called the "FATHER OF NEGRO HISTORY." Today, we celebrate BLACK HISTORY MONTH because of his efforts.

THE KOREAN WAR, 1950-1953 The distrust of communism and the spread of its ideology was very much a part of the United States' focus during this period in American History. North Korea was communist-controlled and backed by Russian advisors and weaponry. To the south, and divided by the 38th Parallel, was the Republic of South Korea. North Korea decided to invade and take over South Korea on June 25, 1950. This was the beginning of the Korean War. President Harry S Truman (1945-1953), himself a World War I veteran, acted with speed and asked for the United Nations' support in stopping the military actions of North Korea. On June 27, 1950, President Truman ordered the U. S. Air Force and Navy into Korea. By June 30, U. S. Army ground forces were sent in from military bases in Japan to stop North Korea's advances. Among those forces was the all-black 24TH INFANTRY REGIMENT. This was an extremely tough war for the American troops. Neighboring Communist CHINA, at the same time, sent large contingencies of troops across the border to help the North Korean soldiers. The weather, terrain, and fields also demanded alert foot soldiers to keep abreast of enemy attacks. Knowing these factors, the military top brass began to seriously look at the SEGREGATED POLICY of maintaining SEPARATE ALL-BLACK military units within the ARMED SERVICES, especially as representatives of the U. S. Government in FOREIGN AGGRESSION WARS. Two years prior to the Korean War, President Harry S Truman issued EXECUTIVE ORDER 9981 on July 26, 1948. This policy was historic because it called for "equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin." President Truman also established a PRESIDENTIAL COMMITTEE which could establish the best way to implement his plan of eliminating segregated military units in the United States. In the midst of the Korean War, the Presidential Committee, chaired by CHARLES FAHY, released its findings: "The committee concluded that military efficiency would be improved with FULL UTILIZATION of Blacks and that segregated units were an inefficient use of Black resources." Implementation of these military policies DID NOT eliminate all-black fighting units in the Korean War, but it paved the way for the inclusion of both white and black soldiers into INTEGRATED UNITS by mixing established units with replacements when needed. Johns Hopkins University helped speed the end to separate units in the military when its Operations Research Office released its "PROJECT CLEAR" study which concluded "that racially segregated units limited overall ARMY effectiveness while integration enhanced effectiveness, and that a quota on Black participation was unnecessary." By 1954, THE LAST ALL BLACK UNIT HAD BEEN DISBANDED, AND BLACK ENLISTEES WERE ACCEPTED WITHOUT A QUOTA SYSTEM. The Korean War was the turning point in the acceptance of African Americans as proven SOLDIERS OF LIBERTY in the UNITED STATES MILITARY. The Army thus ELIMINATED 300 ALL-BLACK UNITS. There were more than 300,000 AFRICAN AMERICANS integrated into previously all-white units when the Korean War ended on July 27, 1953. Some of those who served in Korea: William Benefield * Jesse L. Brown * Cornelius Charlton * Ernest Craigwell, Jr. * Benjamin O. Davis Jr * George Gray * Levy V. Hollis * Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. * Chester J. Lenon * Roosevelt Lunn * Thomas A. MacCalla * Luther McManus * Vance Marchbanks * Dayton Ragland * Hugh Robinson * William Thompson * Ellison C. Wynn W.E.B. DUBOIS Period: The Indian Campaigns Through The Korean War William Edward Burghardt DuBois died at the age of 95 in Ghana. His long life, enthusiasm, and outstanding ability put him in the forefront of many missions centering around justice and civil liberties for African Americans. DuBois received his B.A. (1888) from Fisk University and a second B.A. (1890) from Harvard where he also earned an M.A. (1891) and a Ph.D. (1895). He taught at Wilberforce and Atlanta Universities as well as the University of Pennsylvania. He was one of the founders of the NAACP in 1909. He was the editor and publisher of the CRISIS MAGAZINE until 1934. He was the author of 15 books. His SOULS OF BLACK FOLK (1903) is still widely read by university students today. Dr. DuBois believed in developing the mind in the classical sense of academic learning. He is often placed in an opposing position to BOOKER T. WASHINGTON'S philosophy of developing the technical and mechanical skills for self-determination. DuBois believed in an egalitarian, integrated system for African Americans. He was represented as an elitist among the black intellectuals of his day. When he died in 1963, he was still living in Ghana, Africa, working to complete his ENCYCLOPEDIA AFRICANA.

THE VIETNAM WAR, 1959-1973 The United States did not begin its "heavy" military commitment to the country of Vietnam until the year of 1964. However, an earlier commitment was made by the French to help the Pro-French Vietnamese get more governmental control in the North. HO CHI MINH, the NATIONALIST COMMUNIST leader, along with Communist Russia and China, helped to drive the French and their allies out of North Vietnam by 1954. The GENEVA ACCORDS protected the southern region, known as the REPUBLIC OF SOUTH VIETNAM, and the neighboring countries of LAOS and CAMBODIA, both independent states. HO CHI MINH was determined to unify all of Vietnam under the rule of one communist government. The Republic of South Vietnam, under the unpopular leadership of NGO DINH DIEM, was therefore in a very vulnerable position. A large percentage of the South Vietnamese people wanted to join the Ho Chi Minh government and therefore fought to oust NGO DINH DIEM. This group was called the VIETCONG, and they used their might in "guerrilla warfare techniques" to eliminate those not supportive of the Communist MINH regime. By 1963, the DIEM government was removed by a COUP D'ETAT. President JOHN F. KENNEDY (1961-1963), a strong supporter of the DIEM Government, was assassinated on November 22, 1963. Within months, the new U. S. President, LYNDON BAINES JOHNSON (1963-1969), took up the cause of Vietnam by supporting South Vietnam from the encroaching border attacks of North Vietnam. The U. S. support started out with supplies and military advisors, but, on August 2, 1964, a U. S. Military vessel patrolling the coast of North Vietnam was attacked by the North Vietnamese. President Johnson therefore asked Congress to give him the authority to respond to "any armed attack against the armed forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression." This was the beginning of a deeper commitment of American military forces in Vietnam. By March of 1965 - America was fighting a War in Vietnam. For African Americans, changes were suddenly happening in America. On June 29, 1964, The Civil Rights Bill was passed, banning discrimination in VOTING, JOBS, and PUBLIC ACCOMMODATIONS, and, by December 31, 1964, the United States had sent 184,300 American soldiers to SOUTH VIETNAM. The DRAFT BOARDS all over the United States were actively recruiting and drafting heavily for men and women, both black and white, TO SERVE THEIR COUNTRY IN VIETNAM. African Americans decidedly chose to serve the causes of America, even though educational, employment, and housing opportunities were not widespread in 1965. In the military, the African American soldier was able to maximize some degree of service rank and gain a form of respect which comes with loyalty to one's country. Vietnam, from 1965-1973, became a very unpopular war. The death toll climbed each day. The dense tropical jungles, river valleys, and central highlands made the best of the American weaponry and troops seem at odds with the guerilla tactics of the unrelenting numbers of the Vietcong soldiers. African Americans found themselves in every conceivable position in this war. They were represented in the NAVY, ARMY, AIR FORCE, and MARINE CORP in all ranks up to Colonels, Admirals, and Generals. The Vietnam War ended with a CEASE-FIRE AGREEMENT under President RICHARD MILHOUS NIXON (1969-1974). The last troops left Vietnam on March 29, 1973. Those African Americans who served include: Webster Anderson * Eugene Ashley, Jr. * Oscar P. Austin * Evangeline G. Bailey * Margaret E. Bailey * Thomas N. Barnes * Julius W. Becton, Jr. * Maxie H. Berry, Sr. * Kenneth Berthoud, Jr. * Herbert L. Brewer * Harry W. Brooks * Clotide D. Brown * Wesley A. Brown * Cunninham C. Bryant * Alfred J. Cade * Wayman Caliman, Jr. * Roscoe C. Cartwright * Thomas E. Clifford * Vernon C. Coffey * Jerome Cooper * Ernest Craigwell, Jr. * Woodrow W. Crockett * Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. * Clarence L. Davis * Rodney M. Davis * Frederis E. Davison * Oliver W. Dillard * Robert M. Duncan * Edward J. Dwight, Jr. * James C. Evans * Hampson H. Fields * H. Minton Francis * Samuel L. Gravely * Edward L. Green * Paul Greene * Edward Greer * James Gregg * Annie L. Grimes * Ralph E. Haines, Jr. * James F. Hamlet * Benjamin L. Hunton * Daniel James, Jr. * Robert H. Jenkins * Lawrence Joel * Ralph H. Johnson * Edgar J. Jones * Albert B. Kilby * Garfield M. Langhorn * Matthew Leonard * Robert Lewis III * Donald R. Long * John T. Martin * Hurdle L. Maxwell * Donald L. Miller * Milton L. Olive III * Frank E. Peterson, Jr. * Riley L. Pitts * Jettie Rivers, Jr. * Roscoe Robinson, Jr. * Charles C. Rogers * Clarence E. Sasser * Fred C. Sheffey Spanning fourteen years, the period of the Vietnam War encompassed these major events: 1959 Khrushchev's visit to the U. S. from Russia. 1960 Beginnings of sit-ins at lunch counters not willing to serve Blacks across the U. S. 1961 Cuba's "Bay of Pigs," an attempt to overthrow Premier Fidel Castro. 1962 Lt. Col. John Glenn, Jr. orbited the Earth three times in the Mercury capsule. James Meredith became the first Black American to enroll at Ole Miss. 3,000 troops were called in to stop the riots. 1963 Recitation of the LORD'S PRAYER in public schools was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s march on Washington - "I HAVE A DREAM" SPEECH - 200,000 people assembled. President John F. Kennedy was assassinated. Aid to Vietnam reached over 500 million from the U.S.A. 1964 Civil Rights Bill of 1964. Warren Commission Report on the Kennedy Assassination was released. 1965 Voting Rights Bill was signed. 1966 Medicare Program was put into effect. Senator Edward Brook was elected - the first African American senator in 85 years. 1967 Major RIOTS broke out in Newark, NJ and Detroit, MI during the Summer of Unrest by American Blacks. Thurgood Marshall was sworn in as the first Black U.S. Supreme Court Justice. 475,000 troops were now in South Vietnam. 1968 "Tet Offensive" at Saigon. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated. Senator Robert F. Kennedy was shot and died Representative Shirley Chisholm (D, NY) became the first black woman elected to Congress. 1969 Neil Armstrong, U. S. astronaut, set foot on the MOON. Anti-Vietnam War demonstrations reached an all-time record - 250,000 marched on Washington. Massacre of civilians at MYLAI, South Vietnam was revealed. 1970 First EARTH DAY to stop pollution of the planet Earth. Two women were named as the first female U. S. Army Generals. 1971 Voting age was lowered to 18 years for all Americans. Reduction of U. S. Forces in Vietnam to 140,000. 1972 Constitutional Amendment banning discrimination against women. 1973 Watergate defendants were found guilty. Abortions were ruled legal by the Supreme Court. Top Nixon aides resigned due to the Watergate break-in case. U. S. Vice President, Spiro T. Agnew, resigned due to former evasion of tax payments. The last troops left Vietnam. 1974 President Nixon resigned, and Vice President Gerald Ford became President of the U.S.A.

THE PERSIAN GULF WAR, 1990-1991 Four years ago, the United States of America was presented with a defiant test from an eccentric, but clever, despot named SADDAM HUSSEIN, the president of IRAQ. That test simply involved AGGRESSION. The United States became extremely concerned with HUSSEIN'S actions involving the oil-rich nations of KUWAIT and SAUDI ARABIA. On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded KUWAIT. The United Nations and its member nations thus imposed a ban on all trade with Iraq on August 6, 1990. Iraq immediately announced that KUWAIT was now under its domain as the 19TH PROVINCE OF IRAQ. Iraq wanted to show off its might and displeasure with KUWAIT'S involvement with the Western nations, especially with its sale of crude oil. KUWAIT was at the mercy of Iraq. Many Kuwaiti citizens were sacked of their goods and even murdered. The UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL issued Iraq a deadline that it should withdraw from the country of KUWAIT by January 16, 1991. The U. N. Resolution sent to Iraq was completely ignored. Instead, Iraq retaliated by firing SCUD MISSILES at the countries of SAUDI ARABIA and ISRAEL. Lofty threats were issued from Iraq to the surrounding world nations. It was known that IRAQ had, in its arsenal of weapons, poison gas, germ, and chemical spreading weapons. The uncertainty and unpredictability of Iraq's type of war tactics were designed to put fear into the minds of the other countries around the world. HUSSEIN sent a message to America "that AMERICAN TROOPS would face THE MOTHER OF ALL BATTLES." SADDAM HUSSEIN continued to push his might, and, as early as October 1990, over 430,000 IRAQI SOLDIERS were in Kuwait. President George Bush (1989-1992) denounced SADDAM HUSSEIN'S aggressive tactics and immediately called into the picture his top military advisors. Among them was ARMY GENERAL COLIN POWELL, CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF. Powell was the FIRST AFRICAN AMERICAN to hold this post. He had been nominated by President Bush and later approved by the Congress in August of 1989. General Colin Powell's OPERATION DESERT SHIELD, August 7, 1990, was the first of a series of twentieth century logistical maneuvers executed in the PERSIAN GULF WAR. The set-up points began in neighboring SAUDI ARABIA as a defense point for later tactical movements. Within the next four months, DESERT SHIELD became DESERT STORM. In the days leading up to DESERT STORM, General Powell displayed some of America's best defense tactics. The news media demonstrated a new type of WAR - logistical strategies, precision computerized weaponry, jet fighters, and monitoring devices. This modern-day military used the forces of MANPOWER, plus BRAIN POWER. ON JANUARY 17, 1991, OPERATION DESERT STORM destroyed the IRAQI COMMUNICATION SYSTEM and crippled the entire IRAQI ARMY. By February 27, 1991, the last of the Iraqi army was either captured, killed, or in retreat. The devastation in this area was awesome. KUWAIT'S rich oil reserves were partially destroyed by the Iraqis, but the Kuwaitis were saved by a mixed ARMY OF LIBERATORS. Out of the combined U. S. and international forces came 400,000 men and women, and, among them, 113,000 African American soldiers participated in this freedom mission. The list of names was not available as of this exhibit, but this section is dedicated to their service as honorable African American Freedom Fighters: Soldiers for Liberty.