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INTRODUCTION
The subject of African-Americans in Motion Pictures provides some of the most interesting studies along with the many controversial interpretations of the roles as actors they played on the silver screen. As far back as the silent films era, African-Americans have been featured in motion pictures playing roles depicting some aspect of acting and being purveyors of a black image. The messages or themes of these movies have over the years presented a mixture of images based upon what was thought to please the viewers of each particular film. Unfortunately, many of those films showed black characters in negative stereotypical roles which the average African-Americans would never truly identify as being like themselves. Since many of our American icons and heroes have come from our motion picture stars, we need to understand what this narrow view presented and compare it with what we presently see at our local cinema today. This exhibit will take you on a journey through those stages. In some way it will be a short history of African-Americans and their quest to be a part of the glamour of Hollywood and the heroes portrayed on the silver screen. Prof.
Melvin Sylvester |
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THE
BIRTH OF A
NATION
When this controversial motion picture was released in New York City on March 3, 1915, it played continuously for 44 weeks. It was the Gone with the Wind of its day. D.W. Griffith had come up with a film based upon the 1906 play by Thomas Dixon Jr. entitled The Clansman. At 25 cents a head admission, it was the movie to see, due to its spectacular scenes and lengthy version of America's Civil War (1861-1865) and Reconstruction Period (1865-1877). Remember, this was a silent film having none of the words vocalized via this medium. Therefore everyone had to read the flash transcripts between fast moving scenes. Nevertheless, The Birth of a Nation was hailed as "the greatest motion picture of all time." D.W. Griffith was credited with producing a 3 hour and 7 minute movie with cinematic techniques using close-ups, flashbacks, fades and the capturing of staged war scenes and a storyline supposedly based on "true" historical events in America. Griffith had brought to America a new way to capture the attention of large audiences. The Motion Picture industry was ready to move on, and the full length movie spectacle was big box office stuff. The Birth of a Nation was even shown at the White House, and President Woodrow Wilson (held office 1913-1921) commented on The Birth of a Nation for its content and accuracy in dealing with the Civil War and Reconstruction Periods. He said it was "like writing history with lightning!" The Birth of a Nation appeared at a time in America's history when race relations were on the decline. World War I (1914-1918) was in full force, and the First Great Migration (1910-1930) brought to the urban cities a shift in population from the rural South - both Blacks and Whites seeking housing and jobs, partially associated with Northern factories and war related industries. As a pastime, movies were a big part of weekly entertainment. Cities like Chicago, Illinois; Cleveland, Ohio; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, New York, New York; and Detroit, Michigan drew large crowds to see this new phenomenon - The Motion Picture. At the same time, progress was on the minds of upwardly mobile African-Americans. A Closer Look at the Film and Its Treatment of Race The year of 1915 firmly established the achievements of African-Americans (see timeline) at the time The Birth of a Nation was released. This one film also lead to outspoken outrage by many African-Americans, including the NAACP organization. To no avail, the NAACP tried to have the film banned or parts of the film censored or deleted. Most of the black roles were done by Whites in blackface, with only selected scenes for African-Americans in this film. The Birth of a Nation, by all standards of today's filmmaking, might appear laughable, even silly, but the storyline and production visually shown in 1915 was believable history for many who wanted this propagandized view of African-American's status and position displayed. The film included themes on:
All of these unacceptable stereotypes lead to the formation of a new venture in movie making for African-Americans. |
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BLACK
TIMELINE: 1900-1915
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
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INDEPENDENT
AFRICAN-AMERICAN
FILMMAKERS
1915 saw for the first time the formation of the Independent African-American Filmmakers. African-Americans as independent filmmakers took up their cause by counter-attacking the making of The Birth of a Nation. They sought out their own financing in order to produce films with more positive images of Blacks. The Birth of a Race (ca. 1918) was to be the first independent black film undertaken and produced by Emmett J. Scott, personal secretary to Booker T. Washington of the Tuskeegee Institute. The film was released in 1919 but never drew movie goers as previously envisioned. The Johnson Brothers, George P. and Noble Johnson, had already begun movie making as the Lincoln Motion Picture Company which opened business in the summer of 1915. They wanted to produce movies which presented Blacks "in his everyday life, a human being with human inclination and one of talent and intellect." By 1916, they completed and distributed two films, The Realization of the Negro's Ambition (1916) and A Trooper of Troop K (1916). Two years before these films, Bert (Egbert Austin) Williams (1873-1922), the famed actor, singer and vaudevillian, became the first African-American to appear as a star in a motion picture. His 1914 film, Darktown Jubilee, was not well received even though his role was covered up in Blackface. By Right of Birth, 1921, was another one of the "hope for success" movies produced by The Lincoln Motion Picture Company. It covered the portrayal of black life featuring successful middle-class African-Americans. The seeds were now planted, and 1918 brought to the forefront the legendary name of Oscar Micheaux (1884-1951). Micheaux is credited with keeping the African-American independent movie production industry alive from 1918 thru 1948. |
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OSCAR
DEVEREAUX
MICHEAUX: 1884-1951
Both of Oscar Micheaux's parents were born in Kentucky from former slaves. From his parental union came thirteen children. The Micheauxs moved to Metropolis, Illinois where Oscar was born on January 22, 1884. Oscar was not fond of living and working on his parents' farm, therefore he moved at age 17 to Chicago and stayed with an older brother who worked with the Chicago railroad as a pullman porter. Eventually, Oscar worked as a pullman porter also and accumulated enough money to move and buy a ranch in eastern South Dakota in the year of 1905. Oscar married in 1910 and was divorced two years later. Oscar Micheaux taught himself the techniques of writing whereby he published and sold from door to door his first novel in 1915, entitled The Conquest. Encouraged by his success, Micheaux took his farm and life experiences and wrote about them in his second novel, The Homesteader, published in 1917. From the book sales profits, Micheaux invested in his own business by 1918 which he called the Micheaux Film and Book Company. They operated in two cities: Sioux City, South Dakota and Chicago, Illinois. Oscar Micheaux was still not satisfied with this endeavor, therefore he decided to make his first feature film based upon his novel, The Homesteader. The film version, a silent 35mm film, The Homesteader, was released at the end of 1918. A successive series of 35mm silent films were later produced by Oscar Micheaux. They were:
He went on to produce the following sound films:
Lorenzo Tucker appeared in several of Oscar Micheaux's films. He was given the name, the "Black Valentino." Dealing with the issue of skin color had been presented from many angles in motion pictures with African-Americans as the major target. In 1937, Micheaux produced the film, God's Step Children. The movie was highly criticized by Blacks due to its blatant coverage of a sensitive topic. The theme centered around a mulatto woman who adamantly rejected her black origins. The cast included many light-skinned actors and dance girls. The movie was seen as exploiting the issue of color, and Micheaux took heed and withdrew God's Step Children from distribution. Oscar Micheaux decided to marry again in 1929. His second wife was the actress, Alice Bertrand Russell, who assisted him in his company's operation and the development of his long list of films. Oscar Micheaux will be remembered for several reasons. He kept his book and film business alive for 30 years. His determination to succeed in the motion picture industry included these critical points:
Oscar Micheaux was posthumously inducted into the Director's Guild of America in 1986 for his contributions as a writer, director, producer, and distributor of his own films in an industry unable at that time to deal with race as a positive reflection of African-Americans. Each year, the National Black Programming Consortium gives out the Oscar Micheaux Award to an accomplished, deserving media professional or entertainer whose work embodies the creativity, dedication and pioneering spirit of Oscar Micheaux in the development, production and presentation of programming depicting people of color and their culture throughout the world in non-stereotypical ways. |
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RACE
MOVIES: 1927-1948
The year of 1927 ushered in a new era in the motion picture industry. The use of sound films or the "talkies" was the new technique connecting the silent staged scenes in movies to the voices of actors and the action of those scenes. The usage of blackface in sound films was still a carry over from the silent films when depicting African-Americans in movie roles. The old minstrel shows of entertainment by using exaggerated black characters was also a continued trend. The popular rendition of Al Jolson as the Jazz Singer, produced in 1927, and two white sisters, Rosetta Duncan (in blackface) and Vivian Duncan (in natural face), as Topsy and Eva in 1927 dealt with Whites in characterizations of Blacks. In the sound films, the actors were forced to be convincing or sensitive or silly and stereotypic. Soon the black dialect and "suitable" musical talents of both black and white actors had to fit into the making of "talkie" motion pictures. Entertainment had to be more convincing by phasing out the blackfaced white actors and the use of more "suitable" African-Americans in black character roles. The roles of African-Americans during the 1929's thru 1940's saw the rise of black actors seeking work but only receiving roles dealing with light comedy, music, or dance. Therefore we see Stepin Fetchit getting star billing as an African-American actor in a series of films as the slow-talking, lazy-like plantation Negro (Hearts in Dixie, 1929). The film, Hallelujah (1929), conveyed multiple themes of black stereotypes exhibited in song, dance, blues, spirituals, and frivolity, making star billing with Nina Mae McKinney, a light-skinned African-American woman as a standard barer for future lead roles when using black women. Other stars to receive star billings were Ethel Waters (On with the Show, 1929) and Lorenzo Tucker, who was given the name of the Black Valentino, appearing in Wages of Sin (1928), The Black King (1931), Daughter of the Congo (1930), and Temptation (1936). The famed Bessie Smith made her only screen appearance in the short film, St. Louis Blues (1929). From 1929 thru 1939, we see America experiencing two major events:
Hollywood was not interested in making Positive Image Movies about African-Americans -- they saw them as "risky" undertakings; therefore the major roles available to black actors were maids, walkons, butlers, servants, or comics. Remember: blackface was still in vogue, and it could sell movie tickets:
The successful African-American actors were:
Race movies with all black cast members were still being made, therefore we see Spencer Williams, who was later known as the Andy in the TV version of Amos 'n' Andy, doing some similar work in films as Micheaux. He was the star, director, screenwriter, and producer of multiple films. Some of them were:
Music and Dance produced stars in:
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THE
INTEGRATION
PERIOD: 1949-1969
The motion picture industry was never too quick to change their approach in presenting African-Americans in realistic roles depicting social or civil conditions in an integrated context. Many of these roles required scenes showing African-Americans in positions of authority or relating to white Americans in a positive way. This Integration Period therefore brought together African-American actors with scenes along side white actors in roles showing both players dealing with racial conflict and resolution. Between 1946 and 1949, attendance at the local movie theaters began to sag due to more home TV watching. Visual entertainment was shifting toward TV shows, therefore new ideas in the motion picture industry became important to its survival. Some of these new endeavors started with the following motion pictures. Home of the Brave, starring James Edwards, Steve Brodie, Lloyd Bridges, and Frank Lovejoy, came out in 1949. The controversy of dealing with racism and bigotry and the black soldier of World War II and a plot that ended with a healing process was a box office success. Two other movies of 1949 dealt with the controversial issue of race and color. Lost Boundaries, starring Canada Lee, William Greaves, Beatrice Pearson, James Hilton, and Mel Ferrer, and later Pinky, starring Jeanne Crain (as Pinky), Ethel Waters, William Lundigan, Nina Mae McKinney, and Frederick O'Neal. These two movies broke grounds, for they dealt with light-skinned Blacks "passing for white." The implications and privilege of a Black crossing the line and working and socializing with whites were the "must see" movies at the box office in 1949. These films were cutting the edge of placing black and white actors in dramatic roles depicting situations centered around the black plight and the issue of color on the big screen. 1950 saw Hollywood presenting the story of a black middle class family. In No Way Out, Sidney Poitier is seen as the successful Dr. Luther Brooks, MD. The cast included young Ossie Davis, Richard Widmark, Linda Darnell, Stephen McNally, and Frederick O'Neal. 1953 put Dorothy Dandridge in the spotlight in the role as a school teacher in the movie, Bright Road. Harry Belafonte was the school principal. 1955 saw Sidney Poitier as the tough high school kid, Gregory Miller, in Blackboard Jungle. Glenn Ford was his teacher. Sidney Poitier went on to establish himself as one of the best actors coming out of Hollywood. Some of his other critically acclaimed movies from 1951-1969 included:
Harry Belafonte, Mel Ferrer, and Inger Stevens starred in The World, The Flesh and the Devil in 1959; Odds Against Tomorrow, also in 1959, starred Harry Belafonte with Robert Ryan, Shelley Winters, Cicely Tyson, and Carmen DeLavallade. The classic film, Nothing But a Man, came out in 1963 starring Ivan Dixon, Abbey Lincoln, and Gloria Foster. In 1964, interracial romance and marriage was the plot of One Potato, Two Potato, starring Bernie Hamilton and Barbara Barrie. Miss Barrie won the best actress award for the film at the Cannes Film Festival. In 1964, Hollywood produced Black Like Me, a movie based upon the true life experience and book written by John Howard Griffin published in 1961. The movie version starred James Whitmore as John Howard Griffin and Roscoe Lee Brown. The Jazz musician world was brought to the silver screen when Louis Armstrong, Frank Sinatra Jr., Ossie Davis, Cicely Tyson, Mel Torme, and Peter Lawford appeared together in A Man Called Adam in 1966. Also in 1966, Woody Strode, the veteran actor, appeared in The Professionals along with Claudia Cardinal and Lee Marvin, and 1967 saw Al Freeman Jr. and Shirley Knight in The Dutchman. Controversial for its time, 1969 saw Robert Downey's daring production of Putney Swope, starring Arnold Johnson and Alan Arbus. It is said that Blacks appearing in Putney Swope were "as free as whites." The movie was well accepted and did well financially at the box office, making this the starting point for the infusion of more diversified, experimental African-American roles on the silver screen. |
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DOROTHY
DANDRIDGE The Tragic Life of an Actress Called the Dream Goddess Dorothy Dandridge (b.Nov. 9, 1924-d.Sept. 8, 1965) grew up knowing about the world of movies and being an actress. Her mother was the Memphis, Tennessee born actress Ruby Dandridge who appeared in movie small parts from 1930 to the end of 1959. She can be remembered as Oriole on the Beulah TV show (1952) and as Delilah on the Father of the Bride show from 1961-62. Ruby also played in the movies, Cabin in the Sky (1943) and My Wild Irish Rose (1947). Ruby and Cyril Dandridge had two daughters: the older, Vivian, and the younger, Dorothy. Dorothy never got a chance to know her father, for he left home just before she was born. Mrs. Dandridge recognized her two daughters' propensity for dancing, singing, and acrobatics; therefore they began touring cities doing performances under the names of "The Wonder Kids." Soon, Mom and the two girls were off to live in Los Angeles, California. This was the Depression Era in America, but Vivian and Dorothy as teenagers were determined to act and sing on the stage and in films. Therefore California was the perfect setting. That opportunity came when they both appeared in a Marx Brothers film called A Day at the Races in 1937. Up until 1940, Vivian and Dorothy also worked with another teen, Etta James, and they called themselves the "Dandridge Sisters." They got a chance to do small performances with Duke Ellington and Cab Calloway at the famed Cotton Club in Harlem, New York. In 1939, they appeared in the film Going Places along with Louis Armstrong and Maxine Sullivan. Remember the famous dance team of the Nicholas Brothers. Dorothy Dandridge, now of age, was smitten by Harold, one of the brothers, while working together in the 1941 movie, Sun Valley Serenade. They were married in 1944, and the following year she gave birth to a baby girl, named Harolyn, who was born mentally disabled. Dorothy's marriage to Harold sadly ended in the same year. Besides her mother, Ruby Dandridge, Dorothy had watched three other African-American leading actresses become "near the top" stars. She watched the stardom of Nina Mae McKinney (b.1912-d.1967) from the movies Hallelujah (1929) and Pinky (1949), Fredi Washington (b.1903-d.1994) from Imitation of Life (1934) and The Emperor Jones (1933), and the incomparable Lena Horne (b.1917) from Cabin in the Sky (1943) and Stormy Weather (1943). Dorothy Dandridge has always wanted to be the consummate Hollywood actress. After being validated by beating out Lena Horne for the leading roles in both Bright Road in 1951 and Carmen Jones in 1954, Dorothy felt that this was the road to the top. She was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress of 1954, making her the first African-American ever nominated. Dorothy Dandridge brought to the silver screen this ravishing beauty and a natural talent. She was an early arrival to the center stage -- but movie directors were not yet sure where to place this African-American actress on the silver screen of the 1940's and 1950's. Was she to be the sex goddess, romantic beauty, or African queen? No one was sure, and roles for talented, beautiful African-American women were not yet played up as top billing on the silver screen. In the final stages of her career as a motion picture actress, even Dorothy Dandridge had doubts. The glamorous actress spent the last days of her life trying desperately to put together the world of stardom and Hollywood. Dorothy Dandridge died on September 8, 1965 at age 41 from an overdose of antidepressants. Her manager, Earl Mills, had just completed a new movie contract before this tragedy occurred. Donald Bogle, in an Ebony magazine article, "The Last Days of Dorothy Dandridge" (August 1997, p.52-64), and his book, Dorothy Dandridge, a Biography (New York: Amistad Press, 1997. 631p. ISBN 1-56743-034-1), has created a new interest in this forgotten African-American starlet, and the actresses of today are being considered to play out her life on today's silver screen. Dorothy Dandridge's films include:
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THE
TALENTED
COMICS: 1960-1970
Poking fun and dealing with issues of race has always been a concern when depicting complex situations of color in motion pictures. Looking back at the horrors of the actors in early movie blackface, the not-so-funny can easily become discernable business. Therefore, the talented comics had to be funny at the ultimate price of not being seriously offensive. They had to know what was universally funny and how to keep the movie audiences laughing but also remembering the identifiable message. Keeping it real and never offensive, these talented comics became treasures of Laughter. Some of the talented comics from 1960-1990 in motion pictures were:
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A
PERIOD OF
FREE
FLOWING
IMAGES AND
EXPERIMENTATION: 1970-1990
By 1970, African-Americans were firmly in the doors of Hollywood. There were enough purely black themes to play in movies, but also many, many crossover roles were available. It was not strange anymore to see a black actor or actress dressed up as a lawyer or doctor. The African-American was ready to be portrayed as part of America's everyday occurrences. Something else happened at the beginning of the 1970's -- African-Americans could now play strong roles as detectives, cowboys, superheroes, supervillains, and black bucks. Black violence, black comedy, and a host of "blaxploitation" films which had begun in the Sixties were still in vogue, but they expanded into the Seventies. 1970 brought in the second African-American under the name of director in a movie production. (Oscar Micheaux was credited with being the first African-American movie director). Ossie Davis, the actor, was now directing a movie based upon the novel, Cotton Comes to Harlem, written by the African-American writer, Chester Himes. Because it was a comedy based upon a story taking place in Harlem, New York -- it was at first criticized for its undertaking. The movie, starring Raymond St. Jacques and Godfrey Cambridge, proved to be funny and a financial success at the box office. 1971 brought to the silver screen a successive series of superhero black or "blaxploitation" films. Shaft was released in 1971, and Richard Roundtree was the superman black hero detective. He was compared by many to the white James Bond. Gordon Parks was the movie director for Shaft which took hold and became a box office success with both black and white moviegoers. 1971 saw Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song, directed, written, and acted by Melvin Van Peebles in the leading role. Jim Brown, the former college and professional football star from the Cleveland Browns, came to the silver screen in 1964, appearing in Rio Conchos, a western. He later made his mark in the 1967 movie, The Dirty Dozen, with Lee Marvin and Telly Savalas. Jim Brown was able to do what many African-American males had previously been denied. He portrayed on the silver screen a black male being aggressive, hip, smart, and playing the big black buck. He was one of the first African-American actors to play romantic love scenes with white female actresses. Some of his movies were:
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JAMES
EARL
JONES
Perhaps best known today as the voices of Darth Vader in the Star Wars movies, Mufasa in The Lion King, and the booming "This is CNN" announcer, James Earl Jones was born January 17, 1931 in Arkabutla, Mississippi, and suffered from a serious stutter as a child, sometimes only being able to communicate with people through writing. He forced himself to overcome this during his teen years by participating in oratorical contests and debating teams. In 1949, Jones attended the University of Michigan, originally as a premedical student, but decided to try out for some of their theatrical productions and ultimately graduated with a degree in drama. After two years in the army, he moved to New York in 1955 to begin what would become an impressive theater career spanning both classical and contemporary works, including a Tony Award and Drama Desk Award in 1969 for The Great White Hope, a role he would recreate on film in 1970 for which he would receive an Oscar nomination and win a Golden Globe. He also began appearing on television during the 1960's and became the first black man to have a recurring role on a soap opera in 1965 as Dr. Jerry Turner on As the World Turns. In 1964, he made his film debut in Dr. Strangelove. Other memorable film and television roles include: Roots: The Next Generation, Conan the Barbarian, Matewan, Coming to America, Field of Dreams, The Hunt for Red October, The Simpsons, and Frasier. He received another Tony for Fences as well as a Cable Ace Award and Emmy Award for Heatwave, and more Emmys for Gabriel's Fire, Pros & Cons, and Soldier Boys. |
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ESTABLISHED
MOTION
PICTURE
STARS, 1980-1990
By the 1980's, certain African-American names on a movie marquee could definitely identify them as "stars" of the movie business. Casting a well-known movie idol in a comedy, serious drama, musical, or film based upon history could, in most cases, help finance the end product at the box office. Hollywood wanted to embrace these "stars," and the independent movie makers wanted to do the same. Later on the television producers reached out to these stars in the making of full length motion pictures just for television or the buying of the rights to show previously released motion pictures featuring these actors. Names like: Richard Pryor, Whoopi Goldberg, Denzel Washington, Eddie Murphy, Louis Gossett Jr., Morgan Freeman, Danny Glover, Billy Dee Williams, Oprah Winfrey, Bill Cosby, Sidney Poitier, Wesley Snipes, Angela Bassett, and Samuel L. Jackson were chief calling cards as stars of the silver screen. Will Smith could be added to this list, but he came later on into the 1990's. These African-American motion picture stars have an appeal to both black and white moviegoers. Their endorsed star quality has allowed them to play crossover roles along side white actors and also in movies involved mainly with black themes. These stars were also in demand for sequels to their first run movies. Some examples we see in this changing status of the African-American movie star could include the following:
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WHOOPI
GOLDBERG
Whoopi was born in New York City. Her birth name is Caryn Johnson, but to everyone she is Whoopi Goldberg. Whoopi came up during the 1960's and was connected with the hippie movement and civil rights marches. She worked on Broadway in Hair, Jesus Christ Superstar, and Pippin. She was married for a short period and has one daughter. Ms. Goldberg is said to be "a born mimic with a natural, flawless eye and ear for details of character." This special acting ability helped her to create her one-woman show on Broadway called Whoopi Goldberg (1984-85). Many of her recreated characters were taken from real people she knew. Whoopi was extremely funny in her stage portrayals but constantly reminded her interviewers and critics that she was an "actor not a comic." Whoopi Goldberg has to her credits several motion pictures. Her role as Celie in The Color Purple (1985) helped the movie critics to see another side of Whoopi's character acting ability. She also played in:
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THE
AFRICAN-AMERICAN'S
PLACE:
1990 TO DATE
By 1992, the market for African-Americans in the motion picture industry had been well established. Moviegoers selected the movies they enjoyed seeing along with watching their favorite movie idols. The representation of the movies appearing at the multiplex cinemas could now offer a wide selection of films and, the ticket holders were determining which ones to see. Advertisements and the critics could determine, partially, the success of the movie at the box office, but, most times, the moviegoers made the movie a hit, especially a financial one. Some of the box office hit movies were:
Some of the most popular blockbuster movies coming out of the 1990's were:
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POST
PRODUCTION
There are still few African-Americans working in post production in feature films and in television, and it has never been recognized that they are nonetheless a very integral part of the process.
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TODAY'S
EXPANDING
WORLD
African-Americans in Motion Pictures in today's expanding world of visual imagery can be seen on many expanding fronts. We see the making of motion pictures on subjects or themes which can be taken from history, life experiences, music, and unexplored events. Today's markets are open, and African-Americans are taking advantage of these open door opportunities. Actors and actresses are expanding their roles from stage acting to movies to TV miniseries to media resources on CD-ROM, video cassettes or discs, and roles taken from books, both hardcovers and paperbacks, plus movie soundtracks. African-Americans are included in the top money making motion pictures. The following lists are compiled from the top 50 domestic hits of each year, followed by the top 100 domestic hits of all time (data courtesy of Box Office Mojo):
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